The Velir: Were
they the Velalas?
S.D.Nellai
Nedumaran & S.Ramachandran
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Introduction:
Sangam
literature speaks about Velir, a clan of royalty, who seem to have ruled parts of
Tamil Nadu from very early times. In fact, they were the original kings of
Tamil Nadu before it was subjugated by the vendars (emperors) i.e. Chera, Chola
and Pandyas. The vendar who established themselves as the masters of the soil
married girls belonging to the Velir clan and accorded many privileges and
status to the Velir. Some of the Velir seem to have married the daughters of
vendar though it was not a common occurrence. In due course, the Velir clan
lost its individual identity and was recognised as a constituent of Tamil
nobility i.e., Kshatriyas of Tamil Nadu.
Dissimilarities
between Velirs and Velalars
Most of
the scholars who have dealt with the above subject have either identified
Velir, with Velalar or traced the origin of the Tamil Velalar to the Velir
clan. They have no doubt studied the subject matter exhaustively but failed to
observe the glaring dissimilarities between the Velir and Velalar: First of
all, it can be pointed out that the term velanvayil occurs in
Perumbanarrupadai. Generally vayil denotes those who serve as intermediaries.
(Tol.Purat..28) There is no mention of Velalar in
sangam literature but there are lots of references about Velir, connecting them
with the rulership over the soil4. But, Tolkappiyam, the eariiest Tamil grammar
which is silent about Velir equates Velalar with the Sudra Varna and points out
that the only avocation of the Velalar was agriculture. (This clearly shows
that the Porulatikaram of Tolkappiyam or Marabiyal must have been written after
the Sangam period). The trend of connecting Velalar with agriculture is
reflected even today in the term of Velanmai or Vellamai used in the sense of
cultivation. The term Velanmai occurs in this sense in Kalittokai (verse
101:45). In a Paripadal verse (no.20, line 63) the term Velalar occurs, in the
sense of a ploughman.
Heroic
age of Tamils
The
Sangam literary works (3rd century B.C.-4th century A.D.) represent an earlier
epoch, in which heroism in battle and gallantry in public life, were lauded. It
was the heroic age in which the Tamil state was in a formative stage. The
process of transformation was recorded in the verses sung by bards, minstrels
and poets.
In the
archaeological parlance, the Sangam period can be termed as the period of
Megalithic civilization in which the torchbearers of the civilization were well
versed in iron smelting. They seem to have migrated from other parts of
The
Institution of Velam
Local
chiefs, both tribal as well as republic, who opposed the establishment of the
Megalithic people were subjugated and their women folk were taken captive of.
This is revealed in some references about Kondi-magalir Pattinappalai and alil
pendir in Narrinai. Such institutions of captive women were probably called
Velam. Though there is no mention of the
word Velam in sangam literature, references about the institution of Velam and
Velatti (mistress as well as servant maid) abound in the inscriptions belonging
to 8th to l3th centuries A.D. It will not be anachronistic, if we perceive that
this insitution had its origin in the heroic age itself. Children born to such
Velattis might have been called Velalar. This interpretation seems to be
logical, as, accarding to Tolkappiyam, Velalars were equated with the Dasyus
(children of servant maids) mentioned in the Vedas and accorded Sudra status, as
per the Varnasrama order, based on the Vedic socio-political system.
Formation
of the Velala Caste
The
course of socio-political history of Tamils, which faced many vicissitudes, is
reflected in successive, literary works. The formation of state, expansion of
agriculture through clearing the forests, bringing vast tracts under the plough
and starting massive irrigation projects needed manpower. For tapping this manpower, prisoners of war
and men folk born in the Velams were utilised. This naturally led to the
entrenchment of Velalar as an indispensable caste in the socio-political
hierarchy. This trend which started in the heroic age itself grown fully in the
Kalabhra period and is reflected in the post-Sangam works i.e. the didactic
literary works like Tirukkural etc.13 which belong to the 4th to 7th centuries
A.D.
The
Velalar who were born out of wed-lock and who followed the matriarchal system
of inheritance gained some sort of recognition, due to their numerical strength
and in due course became indispensable, as they gained experience in land
revenue administration, after the heroic age (4th-7th century A.D). The
Kalabhra interregnum, which had the backing of Jaina and Buddhist clergy
probably created a conducive atmosphere for the
elevation of the status of Velalar. But this was only one phase of the
metamorphosis. In the all
The
Velir before Kalabhra Interregnum
The
ruling class which consisted of the Velir before the advent of Megalithic
civilization (i.e. lOth-8th centuries B.C.) was not totally extinguished after their
conquest by the vendar. Those who were prepared to move with the changing times
and who proved their mettle in specific instances were recognised as a class of
nobility, and some of the Velir were probably appointed as Achan and Enadi
(preceptors of martial arts and chiefs of the defense forces) by the emperors.
For example, we can cite the name of a Sangam poet Maturai Vel Achan, a
Malaiyaman chieftain, Cholika Enadi Tirukkannan, and a Chera general Choliya
Enadi Tirukkuttuvan.
An
insight on the origin of the Velir
Efforts
to trace the origin of the Velir have been made already by reputed scholars. It
has been pointed out that the ancestors of Irunkovel, ruled over Dwaraka 49
generations before him. This Puranunuru verse (written around lst century
A.D.), which mentions this quasi-historical fact is reliable, as it tallies
with the findings of S.R.Rao who has conducted offshore excavations at Dwaraka
in
It was
after this catastrophe, that the Velirs migrated to Velpulam (Karnataka) and
Tamil Nadu.
The
origin of Velirs from Tadavu
The
origin of Velirs is said to have been from the Tadavu of a northern sage. This
sentence, which is found in the Purananuru verse has
been interpreted as a reference to the Homakunda or sacrificial pot of a
northern sage. But the word tadavu has got another meaning. The words tadam,
tadavu or tadakam means a 'water source'. These words are still used in the
sense of a spring or a pond in a hill'. If we take this reference in Purananuru
to mean a water source in a hill, it tallies with the descriptions found in the
historical folk ballad namely the Valangai Malai (1600 A.D.). In this ballad
the past glory of the Chanror-(Nadar)-kulam is brought out vividly. The
ancestors of Chanror-kulam, according to this ballad, were called Valangai Vel
and Velir and they were said to have been born in a spring called Elanchunai
through the conjugal union of the Sage Vidyadhara-muni with the seven daughters
of Naga Raja. This description is
repeated in many panegyric poems and copper plate documents belonging to the
Chanor-kulam. It is not known whether
any social document belonging to other communities contain this reference. This
was not a mere folk belief, but a historical fact. A sect of Chanror or Nadar community called
Velan Chanrar has been recorded in the Ceylon Gazetteer published in the year
1824 A.D.
Velir
and Velvi
Even if
we take the etymological origin of the world Velir from Velvi [sacrifice], it
can be argued that the tribal sacrificial rites as well as modes of worship
were conducted with the offerings of water (abhisheka) and not with fire. Such tribal modes of worship as well as
sacrifice were practiced by the Neolithic folk who had not mastered the
technology of creating fire. Even the
stories which deal with the origin of deities indirectly point out to this
fact. Muruga Vel, the tribal deity of
Kuravars was believed to have been born in a water source. But later myths describe Murugan as Agni
Putra. This was probably due to the
Vedic belief of the purificatory quality of fire.
The
theory that the Velir originated from the Homakunda or sacrificial pot, has to
be viewed in the context of Madukkol Velvi mentioned in Silappatikaram. The fermentation of toddy was considered as
an auspicious symptom heralding the presence of a divine force. It will be interesting to note here that
Balarama or Valiyon who was related to the Yadukula and who was the Nagaraja
was fond of intoxicating brew. He had
the Taladvaja (panaikkodi) as his banner.
The velirs might have discovered the technology of toddy tapping from
the palm-tree and his toddy (pennaippili) was equivalent to the Somapana of the
Vedic period. And this Madukkol Velvi
might have been the tribal counterpart of the Vedic Soma-yaga, which had its
origin in the Neolithic or Chalcolithic period.
It is a
point of interest to be that the famous Pari Vel, liberally distributed toddy
and beef to poets and brahmins like Kapilar, is
mentioned in a Purananuru verse.
The
symbol of pot can be taken as the tadavu form which the Velirs were born. The Melichchanar or Mulikkalattu
Olukkavic-Chanror were considered to have hailed from
Mushika kula, the clan of Vel Nannan.
The
relationship of Velir with Vendar
The
word Vel is used in connection with warfare in the Sangam literature. Even the deities Murugan and Manmatan who
were mentioned as Muruga Vel and Kama vel in the Sangam literature, attained
the suffix Vel due to their proficiency in warfare. Murugan was the Deva Senapati and Kama Vel
was adept in piercing the hearts of lovers through his five weapons (ainkanai). Manmatan is referred to as Peruvel (the great
hero) in Perunkatai (6th century A.D.).
According
to the Puranas, Puru and Yadu were brothers.
The prasasti portions of the copper plate inscriptions of the Pandya
kings (9th - 10th centuries A.D.) trace the origin of the Pandyas from
Chandra-kula and the King Pururavas.
One
verse from Kalittogai, a Sangam literary work, describes that Kudam Chuttum
Nallinattu Ayar (probably Ayvelu) who originated from a pot, were
cousins of the Pandya kings. These
Nallinattu Ayars were distinct from Pullinnattu Ayar, who were
the Ahirs (or Ahiras) the clan which was later accommodated in the Yadava clan
as per the hypothesis propounded by Suvira Jayaswal. Some ruling houses belonging to the Velir
clan retained their status and privileges after the conquest of southern
Connecting
link between Velirs and Velalars
One major
aspect which was the connecting link, though in a remote manner, between the
Velirs and Velalars was the attention shown towards agriculture and land
revenue administration by the Velirs in the pre-Sangam period. Proper irrigation through storing of water
and cultivating the soil with plough or Nancil (Skt: ('Langala') were
introduced by the Velir clan. In a
sense, Velirs were the organizers as well as managers of the productive forces. Even the word Velvi attained meaning of
production, as it was used in the term Erkkalavelvi later.
The
administrative or politico-geographical units of Nadu were organized and
administrated by Velirs. This process
was probably initiated around 1000 B.C. in Tamil Nadu, and was in an embryonic
stage, up to the advent of the Megalithic civilization.
The
term Nadan has been used as an epithet of Velirs in the Sangam literature. This shows that administration of the tract
was based on agriculture and land revenue administration. But we have to remember that the state was
not a well established one with the regular bureaucracy, at that time. As it was the prehistoric period, the system
of governance was kept in the hands of the gana or republics like Vrishnis of
Yadu-kula. The Lichchhavi clan in which
Buddha (5th century B.C.) was born can be compared with Velirs. Even Suddhodana, father of Siddhartha, was
said to have been a skilled tiller of soil, according to D.D.Kosambi.
Co-existence
of Vel Kulam and Velalar Kulam
Tamil
society went through many major changes during the Kalabhra period. In a bid to reform the institutions of
marriage and family, Velalar who were born out of wed-lock, were also accorded
some status in the society, and the institution of marriage was introduced
among them, by the ruling house of that time.
Kalabhas "of the Kali age" might have been Vaisyas well versed
in agriculture. They might have opted
for Velalar status later
Tolkappiyam
says that in olden days marital rituals were conducted for the three higher
varnas (i.e. Antanar, Arasar and Vanigar) only, but gradually those rituals
were introduce among the Velalar also.
As Jainism and Buddhism preferred peaceful avocations, Vaisyas and
sudras were patronised by these religions.
Epics like Silappatikaram, Manimekalai and Perunkatai were the products
of this period and these epics give vivid details of the changed scenario.
When
Pallavas in the northern parts and Pandyas in the southern parts of Tamil Nadu
were ascending on the political horizon (6th-7th centures A.D.), they had to
take into account the prevailing socio-political environment, and in many
cases, they took care to get their orders ratified by the Nattars or local
agriculturists. In some cases, the
Pandya kings had to intervene and restore the rights of the earlier title-holders
like Brahmins, when their endowments had been encroached by sudras.
In the
9th century, when the Chola empire started its long
innings, Velkula Chalukyas were ruling in Karnataka and Ay Velir were ruling
the southern extremity of Tamil Nadu. These Velkula kings were considered as
kshatriyas. The Chinese pilgrim Huen
Tsang has testified to this fact. An
inscription belonging to the period of Aditya Chola (9th century A.D.) mentions
the title Chembiyan Tamilavel conferred on Vikkiyannan as a caste suffix
(kulappeyar). Similarly the name
Ilachchanran nunnurruva perumanagiya chola vel enadi (Tirukkannapuram,
inscription can be cited here.)
It
gives us a glimpse on the practice of kings conferring the title vel on the
monility or people of the royal clan, who assisted them. In later times (13th century A.D.), when the
Chola king Rajaraja III accepted defeat at the hands of Maravarman Sundara
Pandya and preferred to be his subordinate, the Pandya king conferred the title
Mavel on Rajaraja III. Such instances
show that using the title Vel as a suffix was the prerogative of the
kshatriyas. But the caste name Velalan
was not used as a suffix by people belonging to that caste.
Chekkilar,
who served as a minister under the Chola reign, and who was a Velalar, mentions
the Velir-kulam, as a constituent of royalty and distinguishes it from the
Velalar caste, which is denoted by the terms such as Velan-kudi, Sudranar-kulam
and nalankulam (the fourth
Vel
and Velan were these terms synonyms?
In the
inscriptions belonging to the later Chola and Pandya period (10th century A.D.
to 14th century A.D.) we come across many officials having the suffix
Muvendavelan added to their names. Some
scholars, who have studied this feature, opine that the post of muvendavelan
was held by Velalars. It is true that
this post seems to have been connected with land revenue administration. It seems that some Tondaimandala Velalar like
Cirukunra nattuk - karikaikkulattu kandan Madhavan were appointed as velan by
Kulottunga Chola.
That
the titles muvendavelan and Velan were conferred on officials who were engaged
in land revenue administration and that might have been the reason why people
belonging to different strata of life and hailing from various castes obtained
this title from the successive kings as the Chola reign (10th-13th centuries
A.D.) became broad based, encompassing all the subjects through a perfect
revenue network. Local talents and the
native genius were taken into account and traditional expertise was
incorporated in the Chola revenue set up.
Later Pandya kings also followed the system introduced by the imperial
Cholas. The following evidences can be
cited in support of our argument.
antanar velan
(Brahmin)
tillai muvayiram velan
(dikshitar)
nanmarai velan (one
who was wellversed in the Vedas)
vedi velan (brahmin)
Srimulasthana velan
These
names belonged to the Brahmin caste. The
following names denote men from other castes.
karaiya vettuvaril
velan (fisherman)
tattan velan (goldsmith)
vetkovan velan
(potter)
akampati velan
(servants in the harem)
kodukulavan velan
(royal clan)
ukirai vellalar
velan (a division of Vellala caste)
pallavaraiyar velan
(Nanadesi merchants or Desikar)
anukka velan (body guards)
pillai velar
(vellalar)
tevaradiyaril velan
(courtesan caste)
ettivelan (trader)
viyapariyan elan
(trader)
chittirameli velan
(chittirameli guild)
araiyaril velan
(local chief)
tondaiman velan
puvaniya vettuvaril
velan
vanatirayan velan
akampati mudaligalil
velan
tennilakngai
valanchiyaril velan
panankadi
kudiyudaiyar velan
konga velan
chera velan
kudimakkalil velan
(velan among the commoners)
samaya narayana
velan
orriarasrgalil velan
(ruler of Tiruvorriyur)
velarmagam nadalvan
"Vettakkudaiyan
. . . . muvendavelan" hunter tirbe "Adittan
Suryan ana Tennavan muvendavelan"
Nadalvaril velan
ariyapurochan velan
manikkirama velan
senatipatigalil
velan
chediraya panmaril
velan
vellaril velan
Nadalvar
velans
Senatipati
Parakesari Muvendavelan was the brother of Viramadevi, wife of Rajendra Chola
I. He was the chief of the military
force and belonged to the Chola royal clan.
But he had the title Muvendavelan.
Another
Sena called Solai Manikkam had the title Uttama Chola Muvendavelan. He served under Rajendra Chola I.
Some
officials occupying the higher echelon in the Chola hierarchy had the title
Nadalvan. One such Adaiyur Nadalvan was
called Rajarajan Paraniruparakatar alias Viachola Ilangovelar. He was the lord (kilan) of Nadar in
Tiraimur-nadu and lived in the 12th century A.D. The great scholar T.A.Gopinatha Rao concluded
that this Adaiyur Nadalvan must have belonged to the Chola royal clan. The title Ilangovelar seem
to have been borne by the royalty.
Another
Nadalvan by name Kulottunga Chola Nadalvan was called Velan Kalaiyavinan. This Velan alias Nadalvan lived in the 12th
century.
One
Virudarajabhayankara Murasu Nadalvan is mentioned in an inscription from
Velar
Kani and Vellankani: holdings of Government officials
It
seems that the title deeds given in favour of these Nadalvars were generally
called Velar Kani. In an inscription
belonging to the period of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandya, Nadalvars of the
Adanur area (Tirumayam taluk, Pudukkottai District) proclaim that Velar
Kudikadu was their traditional holding.
Such instances show that the dominant group among the Velars or Muvenda
Valars consisted of the nobility or the royalty.
Some of
the Velalars who had the title Velan or Muvendavelan are mentioned in the
inscriptions. The caste name Velalar and
the suffix Velan are mentioned separately.
Equating Velan with Velalar caste is certainly wrong. The terms Vellan Kani, Vellanvagai nilam and
Vellan-sudukadu can't be taken to mean the possession of Velalars. Talaivaychcheri which consisted of
Talaivaych-Chanror (nobility who looked after the sluices) had Vellanvagai
lands under their possession and Vellan-sudukadu for their use. In another
instance, the title holding of a noble man Orri arasan or Orri mannan had been
classified as Vellankani. There is not even
a single instance to show that such holdings were the possession of Velalars,
where as there are many inscriptional evidences to prove that Velalars were
serving as cultivating tenants for the lands of brahmins and Perunkudigal. So this term Vellan might have been used as
an adjective in the sense of direct governmental control and nothing more.
The
Chittirameli Periyanattar who originated from the four varnas
(chaturvarnasya-kulodbhavam) and who gradually got accommodated in the Velala
caste did not claim the title Velan as their prerogative.
Documents
belonging to the Kongu Velala gavundars speak of their status as Kumaravargam
of Pandya kings. This statement can be
compared with the above
mentioned
inscriptional versions of the Chittirameli Periyanattar guild. Kongu Velala gavundars probably originated
from the nobility of the Pandyakulam through the institution Velam. They were not inclined to claim Kshatriyahood
but were content with the status of Velalar.
Conclusion
To sum
up, from the statement of Karpiyal of Tolkappiyam Poruladikaram (142) which
deals with the marriage systems of the ancient Tamils and the restrictions
listed by the commentators like Ilampuranar (11th century A.D.) and
Nachchinarkkiniyar (13th century A.D.), it is certain that the Velir who had
marital connections with the kings would never have become Velalars. Ladies of the Velir clan, who were married to
kings, were called "velvikkilatti", a high sounding honorific. Even "Vettal" meant the marital
ritual. The inscriptions, copper plate
grants and other documents belonging to later ages also support this view. Further, one may understand from ancient
history that the Velir had rights to possess holdings like royal drum, sceptre,
chariots, crown, elephants, etc., in par with the kings. It has to be remembered here that not even a
single copper plate document belonging to the Velala caste claim their origin
from the Vel;ir or try to claim the titles Velan or
Vellan as theirs. There is valid ground
for the claim of Kshatriyas or the nobility like Chanror-kulam to these titles
than for the claim of Velalars.
Notes
and References
1.
Purananuru 345:7
2.
Paditruppattu:
"Udiyancheralukku Veliyan Venmal
Nallini inra makan Imayavarampan Neduncheralatan" - Patikam in II decade)
"Kudakko
Neduncheralatarku Velavikkomandevinra magan Adukotpattuch-Cheralatan"
(Patikam in VI decade).
"Chelvakkadunkovukku
Velvikkoman Patumandevi inra magan Peruncheral Irumporai" (Patikam in VIII
decade).
"Kuttuvan
Irumporaikku maiyur kilan Venmal Antuvan Chellai inra magan Ilancheral
Irumporai" (Patikam in IX decade).
The term Velvikkilatti which occurs in
Silappatikaram is also significant.
3. See
"A forgotten chapter in South Indian History" in Prof.
V.R.Ramachandra Dikshitar Centenary Volume: "Studies in South Indian
History and Culture" edited by Dr.R. Nagasamy.
4.
"tonmutir velir" (Purananuru, 24:21,
Narrinai 280:8).
"ventarum
velirum pivanau paniya" (Patirrupattu 30:30, 88:13; Ahananuru 331:13.
"narpattonbadu
valimurai vanda velirulvele virapor annal". - Purananuru 201.
"tervelay"
"velpor vendarum velirum"
"malaikelunatan Mavelan"
"neduvel atan"
"vattaru vel elinyatan"
"vel velatanelini"
"Vel
Pari"
"Ayandiram"
"Velpekan"
"Velevvi" - Purananuru 24, 233-(F.N), 133, 105, 8, 396,
338, etc.
5.
Tolkappiyam., Akattinnaiyiyaal - 31; Marabiyal: 78-81. The term Sudra does not find mention in
Tolkappiyam. But the caste next to
Vaisya (i.e. velalar) can undoubtedly be equated with the Sudra Varna.
6. See
S.Ramachandran, "Sangakala Urpattikkaruvigal", Ayvuvattak
Katturaigal, Vol.3, 1997, Chennai.
7.
Pattinappalai 246.
8.
Narinai 394.
9.
"Velattup pendatti Kallichchi uttamatani." See Pudukkottai Inscriptions. Similar to Velam, Velalar, the
Velakkarapadais of Later Cholas originated.
10. Parttipasekarapuram
copper plate of Ay King Kokarunantadakkan.
Many scholars have discussed this matter.
11.
Tolkappiyam: Marabiyal., 81.
12.
Forced labour (vishti or vetti), and two types of prisoners of war i.e., dasa
and britya, are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka (See: "Past and
Prejudice" by Romila Thapar).
According to Tamil tradition, Karikala Chola took many soldiers from Dam
as captives and engaged them in the construction of the grand anaicut across
the river the Kaveri. There were many
such instances in history.
13.
Patinenkilkanakku or the eighteen minor works.
14.
Tolkappiyam.
15.
Suvira Jayaswal, Changes in the Status and concept of the Sudra
16.
Purananuru 305.
17.
Ibid.
18.
Ibid, 394.
19.
See: Prof. V.R.Ramachandra Dikshitar Centenary Volume.
20.
Purananuru 201. The title "Settirungo" mentioned in this poem means
"Jyesta Irungo" and in some 8th century inscriptions, Irungovels are
mentioned as Irunko muttaraisaru (ancient Irungo kings)
21.
S.R.Rao (un published report).
22.
Ibid.
23.
Purananuru 201.
24.
Tamil Lezicon.
25.
A.Dasarathan, ed. Valangai Malai (in print).
Chennai; Nellai Nedumaran(ed). "Chanrorkula Samutaya
Avanangal" - Tiruvidaimarudur copper-plate, etc. See also: "Decline and Fall of Vellai
Nadar" by S.D. Nellai Nedumaran and S.Ramachandran, 1997.
26.
27. In
a seal belonging to the Sangam period discovered at Karuvur (Karur district,
Tamil Nadu) by Alakkudi Arumuga Sitaraman is engraved an inscription written in
the Brahmi script. It reads as 'Velich
Champan'. The word Veli can be derived
from the verb vel (to do sacrifice).
28.
Tirumurugatruppadai., lines 253-54, Perunkatai 42:229.31.
29. Silappatikaram.
3:28:149, The term homakunda seems to have been
derived from Somakunda. It seems that
Irungovel, who was also called "Settirungo" (Jyeshta Irungo),
performed Somayaga. In the Kasakkudi
plates of Pallava, one recipient of the grant was called Settirungo Somayaji.
30.
Pattinappalai, 89.
31.
Purananuru, 113.
32.
Ibid. 20 etc.
33.
Perunkatai, 42:55-56.
34.
Pandiyar Cheppedugal, 10.
35.
Kalittogai. 113.
36.
Ibid.
37.
Suvira Jayaswal, Vainavattin torramum valarchiyum.
38.
Pingalanigandu, 416.
39.
Travancore Archaeological Series, I, pp.187-93.
40.
S.Ramachandran, op.cit.
41.
Ibid.
42.
Purananuru, 24: 18-22, 117:3.
43.
Ibid. 135:13.
44.
Ibid.
45.
D.D.Kosambi (Tr. Indiyavin Nagarikamum, Panpatum Atan Makkalum).
46.
Tolkappiyam: Porul, Karpiyal, Nachchinarkkiniyar commentary.
47.
Pallankoyil copper plate grant of Simhavarman (6th century A.D.), Sasanamalai,
published by S.Rajam, Chennai, 1960.
48. Pandiyar Cheppedugal Pattu (Tamil) pp.38 and 135. Ep.Ind.,
Vol.XVIII., pp.291-309. One Settirungo
Somayaji is mentioned as a donee in the Kasakkudi copper plates of Nandivarman
Pallavamalla II, (Pallavar Cheppedugal Muppadu, p.146). His name suggests that his ancestors were
patronised by the Settirungovel kings, for having performed the Somayaga.
49. The
meykirtti of Rajadiraja L. in: Muppadu Kalvettugal, 1992: Also see: Senthan
Divakaram (Nikandu).
50.
Huen Tsang, (Asian Educational Services).
51.
S.I.I., Vol.III, Part III, No.89.
52. The
Meykirtti of Maravarman Sundara Pandiya.
53.
Even the Pandya kings, when their power was waning, used to be called as
Vel. Sivala Maran, the Tenkasi Pandya
king (16th century A.D.) was called Sivala Vel.
See: Sivalamaran katai, U.V.Swaminathaiyar Library, 1982, Chennai. In the inscriptions belonging to 1552 and 1564
A.D., the names of the then Pandya kings have been mentioned with the suffix
Vel. S.I.I., Vol. XXVI, Nos.538-39.
54.
Periyapuranam: Idankali Nayanapuranam - verse 3: 'annakarattinilirukkum
velirkula arasalittu'. Cheruttunai
Nayanar Puranam - verse 2: 'tiruntu velankudi mudalvar .... Cheruttunaiyar;
Ilaiyankudi Maranayanar Puranam - verse 1: 'Suttira narkulam ....
Ilaiyankutippati Maranar'; Eyarkon Kalikkama Naynar puranam - verse 207;
Nalankulattil Perukunalam udaiyar .... velanmai mikka tirunayiru kilavar'.
Please
refer to the term, "Kodumbalurk Kuricugal" S.I.I., Vol. VIII, No.624.
55.
Tiruvillimilalai; S.No.567-568/1977, Nannilam volume, Tamil Nadu Archaeological
Dept.
56.
S.I.I., Vol.7, No.43.
57. Tiruvilimilalai,
S.No.575/1977, Nannilam Volume, Tamil Nadu Archaeological Dept.
58.
S.I.I., Vol.7, No.499.
59.
S.I.I., Vol.22, Part I, No.198.
60.
Avana Idal 3, Pulavar S.Rasu, p.22.
61.
S.Krishnamurthy, Vikkiramasingapura Ula, p.93.
62.
S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.233.
63.
S.I.I., Vol.XXII, No.239.
64.
Tiruvisaiyalur, Varalaru, Vol.5, 1995, p.9, Nannilam, Vol.55/1977.
65.
Pudukkottai Inscriptions.
66. Nannilam Inscriptions No.471.
67.
Pudukkottai Inscriptions 471.
68.
Varalaru Idal 3; Alundur Inscription, Pudukkottai Inscriptions.
69.
Pudukkottai Inscriptions, 312.
70.
Ibid., 97.
71.
Sasanamalai, p.33; Tiruvahindirapuram, Kadalur.
72.
Nannilam Inscriptions, Vol.I.S.No.17/1977.
73.
S.I.I., Vol.XVII, No.695; Vol.XXVI, No.320.
74. Pudukkottai
Inscriptions: Tirugokarnam, Alankudi vattam; S.Ramachandran, "Murampan
Inscriptions." Varalaru Idal 5,
1995, S.I.I., Vol.V.No.466.
75.
S.I.I., Vol.IV, No.862.
76.
South Indian Temple Inscriptions, Vol.III, p.666.
77. Pudukkottai
Inscriptions, No.715.
78.
Ibid. No.338.
79.
Ibid. No.995.
80.
S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.157.
81.
S.I.I., Vol.V, No.281.
82.
Pudukkottai Inscriptions, No.541.
83.
S.I.I., Vol.VII, No.788.
84.
S.I.I., Vol.XXVI, No.276.
85.
S.I.I., Vol.XVII, Nos.701, 708, 722, 725.
86. Epigraphia Carnatika, Vol.IX, Kolar 186;
87.
S.I.I., Vol.XXIII, No.401.
88.
S.I.I., Vol.VII, No.797.
89.
Tirikkodikka Inscriptions, AREp., 1931, No.46.
90.
A.R.E.p., 1918, No.75; 1915, No.XXIII, p.118. S.I.I., Vol.23, No.1.
91.
Pudukkottai Inscriptions, No.372.
92.
A.R.Ep., 1918, No.434; 1913, No.56; Pudukkottai Inscriptions, No.36. S.I.I., Vol.III, Part 2, No.68; S.I.I., Vol.XXIII, No.485.
93.
A.R.Ep., 1915-16, p.118.
94.
S.I.I., Vol.XXIII, No.1, Tiruvisaiyalur.
95.
T.A.Gopinatha Rao, Sentamil, Pilavanga Varusham, Karttigai Madam, p.49.
96.
S.I.I., Vol.XXIII, No.401. Perukaranai, Mudukulattur.
97.
Epigraphia Carnatika, Vol.IX,
98.
Pudukkottai Inscriptions, No.395.
99.
Peruvudaiyar Temple Inscriptions, (Dr.R.Nagasamy, p.150): "Vellan
chudukadum, Kottarangalum, Talaivaychcheriyum, Ilacheriyum,
Kammanachcheriyum..."
100.
S.I.I., Vol.VIII, Nos.570,689.
101.
"Piramanar peyaral peyarkkadamai chutti Vellalar agangalil pukku kodukkadu
diyavum" - Inscriptions from Mannarkudi, (12-13th century A.D.), S.I.I.,
Vol.VI, No.58.
Perunkudigal peyaral kadamaikku Vellalarai chiraippidittalivargal
agangalil odukkudal cheyyakkadavadalladakgavum-S.I.I., Vol.VI, No.48.
Another inscription from Tiruppatirippuliyur (S.I.I., Vol.VII, No. 759)
says that in the reign of Perumal Vikkirama Pandya (14th century A.D.)
Vellalar, Alavar, Palligal and Parampar served as cultivating tenants to
Brahmins. Similar instances are recorded
in other places also. (For
detailed study of Perunkudigal......)
102. "Largest Provincial Organizations in
Ancient
103.
Palaiyappattu Vamsavali Tokutigal: Palaiyakottai Pattakkarar Avanangal.
104.
Kongu Mandala Samudaya Avanangal, ed. by S.Rasu,
Acknowledgement
Many
scholars and friends have discussed this matter with us and assisted in
preparing this paper. The help of the
following scholars is acknowledged here.
T.Sathyamurthy, Dr.M.D.Sampath, S.Rajavelu, K.Karuppiah of the
Archaeological Survey of India, R.Poongunran, S.Krishnamurthy of the Tamil Nadu
State Department of Archaeology, K.Padmanaban of the Saraswati Mahal Library,
Thanjavur, G.Tillai Govindarajan of Alakkudi, A.Ganesan, Er.T.Thangavel and
Dr.A.Thasarathan of Chennai.